Rome (City)

Rome is a city in Italy. According to tradition, it was founded in 753 BC on seven hills. It is about 24 kilometers (15 miles) from the mouth of the Tiber River.

Rome did not have an important role in the Bible until New Testament times. The New Testament names the city nine times (Acts 2:10; 18:2; 19:21; 23:11; 28:14, 16; Romans 1:7, 15; 2 Timothy 1:17).

Rome is important to Bible readers for two main reasons:

• Paul stayed there for a time.

• He also wrote a letter to the Christians in Rome, probably from Corinth around AD 57 or 58.

History

Early Settlement

In the second millennium BC, people from Indo-European countries moved into Europe and settled in the Italian peninsula. One group settled near the mouth of the Tiber River. The Etruscans, a more advanced civilization from Asia Minor, occupied central Italy.

By the time Rome began to grow in the eighth century BC, many different peoples lived on the Italian peninsula. A Latin-speaking group settled near the mouth of the Tiber River and lived mainly by farming. Other groups formed alliances and communities to protect themselves from attackers. They built wooden defenses on the hills to protect their families and animals during attacks.

Rome grew from these small settlements and became the main center of the region. Its central area included seven hills:

• the Palatine,

• Capitoline,

• Aventine,

• Caelian,

• Esquiline,

• Viminal, and

• Quirinal.

Tradition identifies these as the seven hills of Rome. However, the area has more than seven hills, and some are only flat-topped ridges.

The Tiber River curves between the hills in a large S-shape. At one place, the river divided around an island. The water there was shallow enough for people to cross on foot.

The town that developed in this area had roads leading in several directions. Roads went north to the Etruscans, south to the Greek trading cities, west to the coast, and inland to the tribal regions in the highlands.

Most knowledge about early Rome comes from archaeology, the study of the past through physical remains. These remains include simple forts and many burial sites in the area.

The Rise of Rome

Over the next 1,000 years, Rome’s political system changed greatly. At first, local leaders formed a loose council. This council later became known as the senate.

Etruscan kings then gained control of Rome. They appear to have taught the people discipline and obedience. They also completed many building projects. They drained the low land where the forum later stood. The forum became a center for public life, trade, work, and government.

The kings also built a temple on the Capitoline Hill for Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva. It served as a shared place of worship for the people.

In time, the kings ruled with too much power. The Latin population rebelled and drove them out.

Rome as a Republic

Rome became a republic in 510 BC. This change began a long period of expansion. Over time, Rome grew from a small city-state into a powerful empire.

The people of Rome lived across the hills and valleys. Although they came from different tribal groups, they worked together to solve political problems without civil war.

The term "republican" should not be understood in the modern sense of democracy. Rome was mainly ruled by members of old and powerful families called patricians. They controlled the senate and formed an oligarchy, a government led by a small group of people. This system helped Rome become more stable and organized.

Rome soon expanded beyond its small territory. It defeated the Etruscans and gained control over the Greek cities to the south. The Romans then turned their attention to more distant lands.

In 273 BC, Rome made a treaty with the Ptolemaic rulers of Egypt. Later, Rome expanded into North Africa, defeated Carthage, and moved into Spain. It also began to seek control of lands in the Middle East. Rome’s many military victories brought great wealth to the city.

Expansion and Social Change

As Rome expanded, life in Italy also changed. During the second century BC, wealthy landowners bought land from many small farmers. These farmers then moved to Rome, where many had no land or work.

Large and crowded apartment buildings appeared throughout the city. Many of these areas became poor and unsafe. At the same time, Rome’s conquests brought great wealth to the capital.

Many impressive buildings were constructed in Rome. Pompey, who conquered and organized lands in the East, helped make the capital more beautiful.

Civil Conflict and the End of the Republic

The next stage in Rome’s political development began when the senate, the ruling body of the republic, could no longer control its more extreme and violent members.

Some leaders wanted more political power. They tried to gain support from the people by giving them special benefits without the senate’s approval. This led to growing conflict and violence during the final century of the republic.

Rome’s military victories also gave more power to its generals. During the civil wars that followed, military force often decided political and legal questions.

Marius, Sulla, Pompey, Crassus, Julius Caesar, Antony, and Octavian became the most powerful political leaders in Rome.

Augustus and the Roman Empire

By 27 BC, Octavian had become Rome’s most powerful leader and received the title Augustus. In theory, Augustus and the senate shared control of the government. In practice, the senate was weak, and Augustus became the main ruler.

This period began the pax Romana, a Latin term meaning “Roman peace.” This peace continued within the empire and across its territories into the second century AD.

Several Roman emperors ruled during the life of Jesus and the early growth of the church. The New Testament mentions several of them:

• Augustus (Luke 2:1),

• Tiberius (Luke 3:1),

• Claudius (Acts 11:28; 18:2), and

• Nero (who is referred to without being explicitly named; see Acts 25:10–12; 27:24; 2 Timothy 4:16–17).

Rome was the capital of the empire. It was also home to the emperor, senators, government officials, soldiers, and priests.

Augustus was the first Roman emperor. His leadership and diplomacy brought peace after two civil wars and a century of conflict. He also worked to repair and improve the city. He claimed that he found Rome built of brick and left it built of marble.

Augustus tried to restore Rome’s traditional religions, so he built many temples. On the Palatine Hill, he joined several existing houses to form his palace. Near the palace, he built a large and richly decorated temple of Apollo. The temple was surrounded by rows of columns and included a large library.

The palace looked down on a group of new marble buildings in the valley. These included a public business hall, the senate house, a temple for the “divine Julius,” a marble platform for public speakers, and two new public squares: the Forum of Caesar and the Forum of Augustus.

Later emperors added more buildings. These included:

• the palaces of Tiberius and Caligula,

• public baths,

• arches,

• theaters,

• the Circus Maximus, and

• the Circus of Nero.

A wall outside the older wall of Servius surrounded the city.

Several aqueducts, which were channels that carried water, supplied Rome. Major roads from the north, south, east, and west also met in the center of the city.

Roman Rule in Judea

Rome gained control in Judea after Pompey became involved in its internal conflict in 63 BC. The census ordered by Caesar Augustus showed that Roman authority also reached the eastern provinces of the empire (Luke 2:1–2). The Gospels and Acts often mention Roman soldiers and officials (for example, Mark 15:16; Luke 3:14; 7:1–8; Acts 5:37).

Legions and Auxiliary Forces

During the New Testament period, all Roman citizens could serve in the legions. Rome now had a professional army of volunteers instead of a militia made up of men required to serve.

The permanent army consisted mainly of legions recruited from Roman citizens. Experienced senior officers commanded these legions. Rome also recruited auxiliary soldiers from outside Italy. After 25 years of service, an auxiliary soldier and his descendants could receive Roman citizenship.

Governors and Troops in Judea

In each province, the governor or prefect had the highest military authority. During the public ministry of Jesus, Pontius Pilate served as the prefect of Judea. A Latin inscription found at Caesarea in 1961 confirms this title.

Caesarea Maritima was the main center of Roman government in Judea. Roman troops under the governor’s authority were stationed there. During major Jewish festivals, Roman leaders expected possible unrest in Jerusalem. At such times, the governor traveled about 96 kilometers (about 60 miles) south from Caesarea to Jerusalem. A large group of soldiers went with him (see Luke 13:1).

The Size of the Roman Army

Augustus created a permanent army that was large enough to defend the empire and keep order. In 15 BC, Rome had 28 legions. Each legion had about 5,000 foot soldiers and a mounted guard of 128 men. In AD 9, Germanic tribes destroyed three legions during revolts. After this loss, Rome had 25 legions for some time. This means that the empire had about 125,000 legionary soldiers during the first century.

Cohorts, Centurions, and Military Officers

Augustus also created a permanent auxiliary army. It was almost as large as the legionary army. The auxiliary soldiers came from the provinces and did not yet have Roman citizenship. These forces included both cavalry, soldiers who fought on horseback, and infantry, soldiers who fought on foot. The cavalry was divided into squadrons. The infantry was divided into groups called cohorts. A cohort could include 1,000 soldiers and was led by a military tribune, a senior army officer (Acts 21:31–33).

When the apostle Paul was in Jerusalem, the military tribune was Claudius Lysias. He was Greek by birth and had bought his Roman citizenship. This citizenship allowed him to become the commander of an auxiliary cohort (Acts 22:28; 23:26).

When Claudius Lysias sent Paul from Jerusalem to Caesarea, he provided a large military escort. It included 200 soldiers under two centurions and 70 mounted guards (23:23). He could send this force without leaving the fortress with too few soldiers.

A cohort consisted of either five or ten smaller units called centuries. Each century was led by a centurion and could include about 100 soldiers. A centurion had duties similar to those of a captain in a modern army.

Cornelius was a Roman centurion who served in an auxiliary cohort in Judea (Acts 10:1). An inscription shows that his unit, called the “Second Italian Cohort of Roman Citizens,” was present in Syria around AD 69.

Paul was later sent to Rome under the guard of another centurion named Julius. Julius belonged to the Augustan, or imperial, cohort (27:1). The title "Augustan" was an honor sometimes given to auxiliary troops.

Julius may have been a legionary centurion serving in a group of military messengers. These officers carried messages between the emperor and Roman armies in the provinces. Julius had soldiers under his command during the voyage to Rome (verse 3). When he arrived, he handed the prisoners over to the commander of the messenger unit (28:16).

The Roman centurions mentioned in the Gospels and Acts were probably officers in auxiliary cohorts (Matthew 8:5; Mark 15:39; Luke 7:2).

Christians in Rome

Paul arrived in Rome under military guard in March AD 59. He found that a Christian community was already present in the city. He had written to these Christians in his Letter to the Romans early in AD 57. A large Jewish community lived in Rome during the first century AD. Many were descended from Jewish captives whom Pompey had brought to Rome after he captured Jerusalem in 63 BC.

The emperor Claudius expelled Jews from Rome in AD 49. This may have happened because of disputes in the synagogues about whether Jesus was the Messiah, God’s promised king. The identity of the first Christian teachers in Rome is not known. They may have been Christian travelers and merchants.

Paul wrote Romans to Gentile churches that had developed without his direct work. His first known contact with people from Rome came when he met Aquila and Priscilla in Corinth (Acts 18:2). This couple was expelled from Rome in the time of Claudius.

Later, Paul planned to visit Rome on his way to Spain (Acts 19:21; Romans 15:24). In the greetings at the end of Romans, he named many Christians in the city (chapter 16). Several references to households suggest that believers met in house churches (verses 5, 10, 11, 14, 15).

While Paul was a prisoner in Rome, he was still able to meet with local Jewish leaders. He explained what had happened to him and taught them about the gospel, the good news about Jesus (Acts 28:16–31).

Rome in the Book of Revelation

In the book of Revelation, Rome is shown as an evil power. By the end of the first century AD, Rome had already shed the "blood of the martyrs of Jesus" (Revelation 17:6). This refers to Christians who were killed because of their faith in Jesus.

See also Caesars, The; Romans, Letter to the.